非語言交流—概述(一)

時間：2023-03-07 13:50:31 英語畢業論文我要投稿

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非語言交流—概述(一)

中文摘要

非語言交流是一種基于交流或包含在詞里自身之上的暗示信息。它是可以通過副語言 (如變聲調可以改變話里的意思)、沉默（關鍵時候保持沉默，你有時可以得到他人展示肯定的感覺和被可能阻礙有效溝通的態度）、眼睛（如凝視某人可能是觀察者覺得那人有吸引力的和有趣的，而發出一個邀請，更進一步去了解）、身體語言（如皺眉頭可能表示疑問、豎耳朵可能表示驚訝，兩腿交叉與不交叉可能代表緊張…）等方式將信息傳送出去。
非語言交流與文化存在著緊密聯系，了解非語言交流的同時也需了解不同的文化背景。一種有效的溝通需人們要正確的解譯非語言交流。了解非語言信息易于顯示真切，誠實，確信，能力，合格的存在的與不存在的程度，故非語言交流在人們生活中是重要的和必不可少的交流方式。

Key words: paralanguage inflection wrinkled brow
關鍵詞：副語言變調皺眉頭

中文譯文
非語言交流—概述

1. 非語言交流是一種基于交流或包含在詞里自身之上的暗示信息。
2. 超語言交流一般用于非口頭表述過程的語言。Meta 是來源于希臘語，其意思是超越或增加，因此超語言交流是在交流之上的。任何能夠被加進有關我們所說所做超出明顯的內容時的解釋稱為超語言交流。
3. 在我們看到更多非語言交流的普遍方式之前，我們將簡單地討論它的兩種方式。由于缺乏一個較好的措詞，我們將叫這些為特別形式。你可能沒有想到它們是非語言交流的形式，它們是副語言和沉默。
一、Paralanguage副語言
4. 你可能會聽說某些人說過：“不是他說了什么，而是他所說的方式。”
5. 變調是能夠影響到信息的作用，當我們用變了聲調的話回答時，是能夠完全改變一個人話里表達的意思的非語言方式。用變調或強調回答口頭信息稱為副語言。
6. 副語言聽起來與語言自身正好是相反的。某些人可能會用‘早上好’向你問候，但他的語調除了是早上好外，其它什么都不是。當然，某些被完全傳送出去的信息是通過手勢和面部表情的非語言方式。Winston Curchill 的照片是在第二次世界大戰期間拍攝的，相片中的他舉起兩個手指，成V字形的手勢，向人們展示了他的勇敢。也許我們每個人都有通過挑眉或皺眉頭這些受歡迎的方式來表達驚訝或疑問的經驗。
7. 還有，當學校里的惡人用舉起抓緊的拳頭一步步向我們走來時，我們就也收到一個要趕緊跑的信息了。
二、Silence沉默
8. 沉默是一種重要的交流方式。
9. 我們中很多人發現一段延續的沉默期相當于是沉重的和緊迫的，于是我們會著急地想用語言來打破沉默，通常會比我們本意說的更多。
10. 關鍵時候保持沉默，你有時可以得到他人展示可能阻礙有效溝通的肯定的感覺和態度。我們發現在成功的交流中如何做是很重要的；我們通過反饋回來信息做。對促進反饋信息，沉默是一種有效的方法。我認為通過沉默控制非語言要素的最低限度。
三、Culture and communication 文化與交流
11. 韋伯斯特定義文化為“特別時期的典型特征或文明進步的區域。”或者是其它的定義：文化是人們想的，做的，生存的和交流的習俗。由于這篇文章是關于交流的，文化對于得出語言交流的定義是有幫助的或可取的。另一方面，文化是交流信息；這兩者的關系非常緊密。
12. 文化是人與人之間交流產生的結果。同時，文化結果的形式，性質，組成是來自于人們的相互影響和他們所生活的地方和時間。“人們的相互影響”正是說明交流的另一種方式。一起生活，一起工作，相互聯系都是交流。我們都是一直在交流或嘗試去交流。
13. 在成功地交流中，聯系是在文化和交流之間的意識，也是有益文化和重要時間之間的不同理解。
14. 可能最簡單的方式去解釋文化和它的關系，交流的說法，人們都是不同的。我們在不同的社會，環境和氣候生活，工作和玩耍，且我們用不同的方式去適應這些。我們這里談到的不僅僅是關于我們自己國家的不同區域，更是關于在世界上很多文化被發現的更大差異。
15. 生活在不同社會，環境和氣候導致的結果，人們自身會發展特別的需要，養成特別的習慣和特有的風俗，總而言之，是產生在特定的形式，表達的方式和方法，以及人們相互聯系的經驗。很多例子我們在這會給出。
16. 比方說，人們在一個暖和的，熱帶的氣候，與人們在歐洲的北方城市的地區生活是完全不同的。
17. 如果我們要明白他們的交流，我們需要知道關于民族和他們的背景。你可以發現當你自己在外國做生意時，這是很重要的事。當你在那里做生意，你要熟悉當地的文化和準備跟隨他們的習慣，這是很重要的。例如，在一些拉丁美洲國家，當人在一起交談時，他們所站的距離是非常緊密的，比我們很多西方國家站得更緊密。如果你是西方企業主管，發現你自己在這方面——站得緊密不舒服，然后退開保持一點距離時，你十分可能會冒犯你的拉丁美洲商業朋友。你的行為很可能引起了交流障礙，因為你給你的拉丁美洲合作伙伴顯現“冷淡的距離的疏遠”。
18. 記住人們做的事是不一樣的，記住人們在他們自己的經歷的時期之間的交流也是不同的。當踫到一些平常之外的事時不要觸怒他人。這種情況可能在你涉及的周圍里出現是罕見的，因為你經歷的范圍里沒有。此情況對于其他每個人也許是完全正常的。
19. 我們似乎總是圍繞著戰爭和戰爭的謠傳的小奇事。除了增加人類行為和語言的障礙外，我們的交流經過文化的隔閡也是復雜的。
20. 很多文化的不同取決于非語言交流的形式。非語言方面相對來說是新的和仍然是在研究的和發展的；然而，我們大多數人已經有足夠的經驗意識到它的存在和重要性。人們必須在觀點上和想法上小心地保留這方面文化，非語言元素作為只是所有交流方式的一部分——在非語言交流可能是重要的時候，不會一直是全部的內容。如果一個人在聽你說話時皺眉，它可能是表示有疑問或有分歧；在另一方面，可能表示患頭痛或可能是光線令人不舒服。對非語言信號保持警惕對你是重要的，但正確的解譯它們也是非常重要的。
四、身體語言
21. 可能最知名的非語言交流是身體語言，至少對于外行人是這樣認為。
22. 身體語言也稱為動作語言。這個領域的一個創始人——Ray Birdwhistell，寫道：“姿態的隔離和嘗試理解它們，是引導人體動作學研究的最重要的結果。姿態最初的研究，首次得出動作語言的結構是與語言結構相類似的。隨著姿態語言的研究，動作語言系統變得清晰，它已經有了讓人驚訝的結構，就像我們所說的語言一樣。
23. 研究人員觀測到人們已經參與到這種交流過程中。他們已經學習了身體語言和其它非語言行為，以及他們已經關系到或識別到這些被傳送出去的信息的真實內容的動作。這個結果是身體語言含義的一本詞典。
24. “編碼人”和“解碼人”兩者送出的非語言信息如同總交流過程中的一部分。
25. 了解非語言信息易于顯示真切，誠實，確信，能力，合格的存在的與不存在的程度；身體語言顯示很多有關“暗示”和被傳送的信息，人們的態度以及感覺。
26. 解譯的身體語言也顯示很多有關他們以及他們的感覺；但最重要的是，頻繁的告知接受或不接受信息的程度。
27. 在其它說法，身體語言提供解釋剎那間的反饋信息給編碼者和回答問題：“我如何做？”這是面對面交流時立刻反饋的信息，正是交流的有效形式。
28. 不管我們是否意識到，我們每個人都會花很多時間去分析身體語言。我們注意到皺眉頭，挑眉，豎耳朵，手指輕敲桌面，兩腿交叉與不交叉，手臂交叉在胸前。這些動作會被認為與信息自身有關系的；然而，很多時候非語言交流會比實際說出來的話語更為明顯的或響亮的。
29. 你曾經發現自己在困難的環境和意識到你在椅子上移動你的身體嗎？或是你手指朝著的衣領里轉動？或是緊張地清清你的咽喉？非語言頻繁的交流展示了我們交流的情感方面。
30. 很多人特別喜愛的運動是“看人”。當站在機場通道時，你是否曾注意到人群，然后嘗試著想像他們的職業，是否有問題，和各種各樣人的想法。你是否注意到一條獨特的裙子，然后會嘗試著判斷關于那個人的事情？你是否注意到一些姿態，面部表情和走路的方式，然后會猜測話題討論下的性質？
31. 要成為身體語言的好讀者，需要你去提高你的觀察和感知能力的水平。
32. 觀察是一種分析的形式，是你在這方領域的能力，被教育，意識和需求三種因素所增加。
33. 教育和意識是相互關聯的。通過教育，一個人變得更有意識。另一種說法，一個知道尋找什么；因此，一個人更愿意去觀察它，去分析它。同樣的，認識到對某事的需求會使一個人準備和渴望去獲得它。如果你曾經嘗試去陌生的鄰近地區找一組確定的房號，你大概會比平常更警惕的和有意識的；你看見你以前沒有看過的事，因為你有需要去觀察和找這個房號。
34. 感知必需與你的能力去觀察，保持警惕，和從交流中發生的真實細節中提煉出來。你必須嘗試從有聲和無聲的交流中提取類似于“編碼”和“解碼”兩者的信息。當解釋你的信息時，你必須了解“解碼者”的身體語言。
35. 同時，交流技巧的精通是重要的。在交流過程中對那些人的關系方面敏感的人猶為重要。這些人的特點通常在身體語言與其它非語言交流被生動地展現出來。
36. 作為一個編碼者，你越快收到用身體語言形式反饋的信息，就越快在必要時轉換更有效的解譯技巧。
五、Eyes眼睛
37. 可能每個人都有用眼睛作為非語言交流的一些經驗。我們大多數用凝視來想知道為什么。那是一種好奇或是病態嗎？或者可能是凝視的人視力很差，只不過是想集中地聽我們講。但是有可能是觀察者覺得我們有吸引力的和有趣的，而發出一個邀請，更進一步去了解。甚至于我們不知道身體語言或是非語言交流的情況下，我們大多數人已在分析“眼睛語言”。
38. 很多信息是通過眼睛傳送出去的，但是凝視是一個人最重要的技能。在我們的文化里，一個人不會凝視另一個人——凝視某物。因此，凝視可以有引人注目的效果，因為它降低一個人非人性的狀況。
39. 當一個人在思考，他的眼睛連著眼皮和眉毛的不同狀態和動作的時候，能送出無止境的信號。像所有非語言交流的形式一樣，用眼睛送出去的信息，應該會伴隨著言語解釋。
六、Hands, arms and legs 手，手臂和腿
40.任何人不用手和手臂怎么希望去交流呢？甚至腿也不僅僅是走路而已。
41. 毫無疑問的，我們都知道某些人是用他或她的手講話。有些人用一些過分的手勢打斷說話，對于他們的非口頭喊聲太緊密，是非常危險的。你知道人在交談時，會用他們的手指尖轉卡片，或是不停地輕敲嗎？你知道有人不斷地按他們圓珠筆上的“開關”嗎？你知道那些頻繁地壓按他們的指關節使其發出清脆的聲音的人嗎？你是否注意到那些抖動腳的人？他們的腿交叉與不交叉的人或是他們的腿交叉，然后前后擺動的人？
42. 這些非語言信息告訴了你什么？是人緊張嗎？無把握嗎？無聊嗎？思考嗎？高興嗎？渴望得到注意嗎？不好的行為嗎？或許這些信息沒有什么意思。另一方面，如果非語言信號展現了交流一方的情緒，對你來說確定說話人傳送出去的信息是什么是重要的。有時候他們都是一樣；其它時候又是非常地不同。
43. 很多人把他們的一生奉獻在身體語言的研究上。身體語言是非語言交流有趣的，有吸引力的區域；很多遺留下的非語言被人學習。成為一個更好的觀察者，提高你的感知能力水平，以及盡可能的多了解你的聽眾，你將能夠更正確地翻譯非語言和語言信息。

1. Nonverbal communication (as the term implies) is anything other than words themselves that communicates or affects (positively or negatively) the message "contained" in the words.
2. Metacommunication is a word used to describe the nonverbal process. Meta is from the Greek and means "beyond" or "in addition to"; hence, metacommunication is something in addition to the communication.Anything which can be taken into account as relevant to our interpretation of what another is saying or doing beyond the manifest 'content' of what he is saying or doing can be referred to as metacommunication.
3. There are two types of nonverbal communication which we will discuss briefly before we look at the more common types. For lack of a better term, we will call these 'special forms'. You may not have thought of them as forms of nonverbal communication. They are paralanguage and silence.
一、Paralanguage
4. You may have heard someone say, 'It's not what he said, it's the way he said it."
5. Inflection can have an effect on the impact of a message; and while inflection is applied to words, it is a nonverbal treatment which can completely change the meaning a person would be expected to attach to the words. Inflections or emphasis applied vocally to a message are known as paralanguage.
6. Paralanguage sounds just the opposite from the words themselves. Someone may have greeted you with a "good morning!" but the tone of the words revealed that it was anything but a good morning. There are, of course, some messages which are transmitted entirely in a nonverbal manner through gestures and facial expressions. Pictures of Winston Curchill taken during World War 11 show him communicating encouragement to the people by raising two fingers in the familiar 'V for Victory' sign. Probably each of us has had the experience of making a statement that was greeted either by a raised eyebrow (indicating surprise) or by a wrinkled brow (indicating confusion or doubt).
7. And when the school bully took a step toward us with a raised, clenched fist, we got that message in a hurry, too.
二、Silence
8. Silence is an important communication tool.
9. Most of us find an extended period of silence rather oppressive and threatening, and we rush to fill the void with words—usually saying more than we mean to say.
10. By using silence at strategic times, you can sometimes get your decoder to reveal certain feelings and attitudes that may be hindering effective communication. It is important that we find out how we are doing in our effort to communicate; we do this through feedback. Silence can be an effective technique to encourage feedback. By silence I mean nonverbal elements held to a minimum.
三、Culture and communication
11. Webster defines culture as "the characteristic features of a particular stage or state of advancement in civilization." Or, another definition: Culture is the way a people think, act, live, and communicate. Since this article is about communication, it seems helpful or desirable to get the word communication into the definition. On the other hand, culture is communication; the two are very much bound together.
12. A culture develops as the result of interpersonal communication. At the same time, the form, the nature, the makeup of the culture results from the interaction of the people and the place and time in which they live. The "interaction of people" is just another way of saying "communication." Living together, working together, relating to one another is communication. We are always communicating—or attempting to communicate.
13. An awareness of the relationship between culture and communication as well as an understanding of the differences between cultures is helpful—and at times essential—in communicating successfully.
14. Perhaps the simplest way to explain culture and its relationship to communication is to say that people are different—we live, work, and play in different societies, environments, and climates, and we adapt to these in different ways. We are talking here not just about regional differences in our own country, but about even greater differences which are found in the numerous cultures of the world.
15. As a result of living in different societies, environments, and climates, people develop special needs, acquire habits and customs peculiar to themselves, and have experiences (and since words are the names we give to our experiences, we have language differences, too) which, in general, result in particular patterns and methods and forms of expression and relating (communicating) with one another. Many examples of this could be given.
16. People in a warm, tropical climate, for example, live quite differently from people in a northern urban area of Europe.
17. We need to know about people and their background if we are to understand their communications. This has important implications for when you may find yourself doing business in a foreign country. It is important that you become acquainted with the local culture and be prepared to follow its rules while you are doing business there. For example, in some Latin American countries, men stand quite close together when talking—much closer than we stand in many western countries. If you, as a Western business executive, were to find yourself in this situation, find the closeness uncomfortable, and back away, you would very likely offend your Latin American business friend. Your action would probably create a communication barrier because you would appear "coldand stand-offish" to your Latin American counterpart.
18. Remember that people do things differently. Remember, too, that people communicate in terms of their own experiences. Do not be offended (and communicate offensively) when something out of the ordinary happens. The situation may appear unusual to your frame of reference because it is not within the range of your experience; the situation may be perfectly "normal" to everyone else.
19. It is small wonder that we seem always to be surrounded by wars and rumours of wars. In addition to the barriers of human behaviour and language, our communication attempts also are complicated by cultural barriers (which actually are linked with language).
20. Many cultural differences take the form of nonverbal communications. The nonverbal area is relatively new and still is being studied and developed; however, most of us have had enough experience to be aware of its existence and importance. One must be careful to keep this area in perspective and to consider nonverbal elements as only a part of the total communication effort—while the nonverbal may be important, it is not always the whole story. If a person frowns while listening to you speak, it may indicate doubt or disagreement; on the other hand, the person may have a headache or the light may be bothersome. It is important for you to remain alert to nonverbal signals, but it is also essential that you decode them accurately.
四、Body language
21. Probably the best-known type of nonverbal communication, at least to the layperson, is body language.
22. Body language is also known as kinesics. A pioneer in the field, Ray Birdwhistell (Ray L. Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970, p. 80.), writes, "The isolation of gestures and the attempt to understand them led to the most important findings of kinesic research. This original study of gestures gave the first indication that kinesic structure is parallel to language structure. By the study of gestures in context, it became clear that the kinesic system has forms which are astonishingly like words in language."
23. Researchers have observed people involved in the communication process. They have studied body language and other nonverbal behaviour, and they have then related or identified these actions with actual content of the message being transmitted. The result is a dictionary of body language meanings.
24. Both encoder and decoder send nonverbal messages as part of the total communication process.
25. The nonverbal messages of the encoder tend to reveal the degree of presence or absence of sincerity, honesty, conviction, ability, and qualifications; body language reveals a lot about the encoder and this person's attitude and feelings about the message being transmitted.
26. Body language of the decoders also reveals a lot about them and their feelings; but most important, it frequently tells the encoder the extent to which the decoders are accepting or not accepting the message.
27. In other words, body language provides instant feedback to the encoder and answers the question, "How am I doing?" It is this instant feedback which makes face-to-face communication such an effective form of communication.
28. Whether we are aware of it or not, each of us spends a lot of time decoding body language. We observe a wrinkled forehead, a raised eyebrow, a tug on the ear, fingers tapping on the table top, legs crossed and uncrossed, arms crossed over the chest. These movements should be considered in relation to the message itself; however, many times the nonverbal communications come through louder than the words that are actually being spoken.
29. Have you ever found yourself in a difficult situation and realized that you were shifting your weight in the chair? Or running a finger around the inside of your collar? Or clearing your throat nervously? Nonverbal communication frequently reveals the emotional side of our communications.
30. A favourite sport of many is "people watching." While waiting in an airport terminal, have you ever observed the crowd and tried to imagine the occupation, the problems, and the thoughts of various people? Have you observed an individual's dress and tried to conclude something about the person? Have you observed gestures, facial expressions, and manner of walk and tried to guess the nature of the topic under discussion?
31. To be a good reader of body language requires that you sharpen your powers of observation and perception.
32． Observation is a form of decoding, and your ability in this area can be increased by three factors: education, awareness, and need.
33. Education and awareness are interrelated. Through education, a person becomes aware of more things. in other words, a person knows what to look for; therefore, a person is more likely to observe it, to decode it. Likewise, realizing a need for something makes a person ready and eager to acquire it. If you have ever tried to find a certain house number in a strange neighbourhood, you know that you were probably more alert and aware than usual; you saw things you had not seen before because you had a need to observe and to find the house number.
34. Perception has to do with your ability to observe, to remain alert, and to extract from a given communication incident the 'realities' of the situation (recognizing, of course, that reality is different for each of us). You must try to take from the communication verbal and nonverbal messages which are similar for both encoder and decoder. While encoding your message, you must be decoding the body language of the decoder. (Communication is indeed a continuous processl)
35. Whilst mastery of communication techniques is important, it is essential that the encoder be sensitive to the human relations aspects in the communication process, and these human elements are often revealed vividly in body language and other nonverbal communication.
36. The sooner you, as encoder, receive feedback in the form of a body language message, the sooner you can switch to a more effective encoding technique if necessary.
五、Eyes
37. Probably everyone has had some experience with eyes as nonverbal communicators. Most of us have been stared at and have wondered why. Was it curiosity or ill manners? Or perhaps the starer had poor vision and was merely trying to get us in focus. But then there is the possibility the observer found us attractive and interesting and was issuing an invitation to get better acquainted. Most of us have decoded "eye language" even if we did not know about body language or nonverbal communication.
38. There are numerous messages that can be sent with the eyes, but the stare is the most important technique a person has. In our culture one does not stare at another person—one stares at things. Therefore, a stare can have a devastating effect because it reduces a person to nonhuman status.
39. There is an endless number of messages which can be sent when one thinks of eyes combined with different positions and movements of the eyelids and eyebrows. As with all forms of nonverbal communication, messages sent by the eyes should be decoded in terms of the words accompanying them.
六、Hands, arms and legs
40. How can anyone hope to communicate without using hands and arms? And even legs are for something besides walking.
41. No doubt each of us knows someone who "talks with his or her hands. Some people punctuate communications with such extravagant gestures that it is extremely dangerous to get too close to their nonverbal exclamations. Do you know people who during a conversation or a card game drum or tap incessantly with their finger tips? Are there people you know who constantly click the on-off switch of their ballpoint pens? Do you know people who frequently "pop" their knuckles? Do you notice individuals who tap their feet, who cross and uncross their legs, or who cross their legs and then swing their crossed legs back and forth?
42. What do these nonverbal messages tell you? Is the person nervous? Insecure? Bored? Thinking? Happy? Craving attention? A nuisance? Perhaps the messages mean nothing. On the other hand, if nonverbal signs reveal the emotional side of a communication, it is often important for you to try to determine what message is being transmitted along with the verbal one. Sometimes they are the same; other times they are drastically different.
43. Many people are devoting their entire life to the study of body language. Body language is an interesting, fascinating area of nonverbal communication; much remains to be learned about it. By becoming a better observer, by sharpening your powers of perception, and by knowing as much as possible about your audience (decoders), you should be able to translate more accurately nonverbal and verbal messages.

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